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An early description of cotton work wear survives from the accounts of Eton College. In 1571-2 the following references are made to servant's clothing for a dramatic production: '2 servantes cotes of black cotten welted with yelowe' 'a servantes cote of white and black cotten and checker wourke' 'a servantes cote of redde and white cotten and checker wourke' (Records of Drama at Winchester and Eton 1397-1576 [Theatre Notebook]. David Blewitt) By 1628 'slops' (ready made clothes) of cotton were being used by the Admiralty for sailors' uniforms, but prices were high because of individual profiteering until an order was issued saying that slops must be sold publicly once a week in full view of the ship's captain. Under this system the following prices were being charged in 1663: " cotton waistcoat 3 shillings (£9.30 at 1997 values) " cotton drawers 3 shillings (£9.30 at 1997 values) " canvas suits 5 shillings (£16.40 at 1997 values) Cotton clothing became a part of the English clothing culture in the 1670s due to the cheapness and popularity of the Indian chintzes and calicoes imported by the East India Company. Chintz was made into pretty and colourful ladies' dresses while East Indian calico became a popular substitute for linen in men's shirts. This hit the woollen and silk industries badly and as a result East India cottons were banned in 1721. However popular demand influenced by issues such as price, utility, variety and consistency of quality, eventually led to the ban being lifted. The lower prices of cotton allowed more of the population to dress 'fashionably'. Until the mid 1700s 'fashion' had been something that only members of the Court and the upper echelons of London society could follow. During the period from 1750-1760 the availability of cheap and colourful cottons increased. There is a description from 1758 of a working woman's outfit which includes 'a patched twill petticoat and a red and white calico bedgown [hip length matinee jacket], red short cloak and rough dyed white Holland gown' In 1777 a servant girl gives an inventory of her wardrobe as 'one pink and black Manchester gown lined with green stuff; one garnet stuff gown; one striped and flowered cotton; one flowered cotton gown; one coloured quilted stuff coat' At this time to buy enough cotton fabric for a gown cost six or seven shillings (around £16-£17 at 1997 values) while a ready made gown cost eight shillings (about £22 at 1997 values). Working men in this period wore fustian (a mixture of linen [warp] and cotton [weft]) and light cottons. Jackets were mostly fustian. In 1739 the notorious highwayman Dick Turpin ordered a new fustian frock (jacket) and breeches for his execution at York Castle. Breeches and trousers were usually made from cotton corduroys and velveret. Joseph Coleman, a skilled labourer, possessed '4 cloth coats, value 20s (approx £54.37 at 1997 values); one velvet waistcoat value 3s (£8.16 at 1997 values); one nankeen waistcoat value 3s (£8.16 at 1997 values) 2 pairs fustian breeches value 3s (£8.16 at 1997 values); one pair of nankeen breeches value 3s (£8.16 at 1997 values)' By 1785 types of cotton fabric generally available included corduroys, jeans, nankeens, erminetts, thicksets, corded tabby and jeanette. There were thirty varieties of cords, velveteens and veleveretts ranging from 2s (£5.44 at 1997 values) to 11s/6d (£31.78 at 1997 values) a yard (90cm). Cotton breeches replaced leather and buckskin from about 1785 as Frances Place, a leather breeches maker's apprentice, ruefully noted in his diary. After 1750 increasing numbers of men's shirts were manufactured from check, stripe and plain shirting materials and in 1784 calico shirts came back into fashion. In the early factory period (c1760-1820) cotton prices decreased. During the 1770s there were fifteen varieties of plain cotton hose available costing from 1s/5d (£4.38 at 1997 values) to 5s (13.60 at 1997 values) a pair. There were also grey and ribbed cotton stockings available. By 1789 working women and girls wore checked cotton fabric aprons and boys wore white napped jackets and red napped waistcoats. Cotton clothing was commissioned by the Armed Forces and in 1793 the Navy put in large orders for cotton shirts. In 1791 two cotton shirts cost 14s/2d (about £34.45 at 1997 values), by 1795 a single cotton shirt could be bought for 5s (£12.30 at 1997 values). The high waisted short sleeved 'Empire line' dresses were all the rage for the first twenty years of the 19th century. These were popularly made in white muslin, which was pretty but chilly, and gave rise to the fashion for calico petticoats, knitted cotton stockings and patterned shawls. Working women could now copy the style of their mistresses although they might use cheaper or sturdier materials. Working men wore corduroy or fustian jackets and breeches. Fustian remained popular for a long time because of its hardwearing durability. Shirts were of heavy cotton and it became the custom for manual workers to wear coloured cotton shirts, checked or usually striped (as was mostly the case with textile workers): 'the distinct badge of the working man', and for clerical, professional or managerial staff to wear white shirts: 'the distinct badge of the professional middle class'. This practice gave rise to the phrase 'white collar and blue collar workers' which is still used in the 21st century to differentiate office workers from manual workers. Between 1820-1860, generally known as 'the age of the factory' the use of cotton declined among those who had aspirations to class and money enough to maintain them. Cotton was becoming 'common'. For working people however cotton brought a choice of cheap serviceable clothing which was easy to wash and looked attractive. Although there were several major changes in women's fashions, men's dress changed little. Breeches lengthened into trousers and were made of either corduroy or moleskin (a type of cotton). Jackets still tended to be of fustian. Shirts continued to be made of heavy cotton like calico or, later in the century, of flannel. The most memorable innovation came around 1830 with the introduction of the cloth cap which was to become a symbol of the working class man for the next 150 years. As prosperity and materialism increased so women's fashions reflected this and became more ornate, more decorative, grander altogether with expense and amount of material used no object. The 1830s saw a profusion of flounces, ribbons, ruffles, huge puffed leg o' mutton sleeves, and a reappearance of the bustle to accentuate the shape and fall of the dress at the back with layers of flouncing. Working women eagerly copied these styles as far as they were able to do so, but in cotton materials rather than the silks, brocades and velvet fabrics which had enjoyed a revival as the wealthy and the aristocracy sought to differentiate themselves through fabrics rather than style, denouncing cotton as 'common'. One of the most controversial fashions in history was that of the crinoline, a hooped cage worn under the skirt to give a voluminous shape without the wearing of layers of calico petticoats. There were numerous accidents and all female mill workers were banned from wearing crinolines in the mills which were dangerous enough without additional fashion hazards. Several crinoline wearers were burned to death having inadvertently allowed their crinoline to get too close to the fire. Florence Nightingale wrote in exasperation 'I wish the Registrar General would tell us the exact number of deaths by burning occasioned by this absurd and hideous custom...' (Notes on Nursing, 1860). The crinoline went of fashion during the mid 1860s and for the rest of the century skirts became narrower and straighter. Cotton clothing was much in demand again after the slump caused by the American Civil War. The fashion for separate tops and skirts which emerged in the 1880s must have been a boon for working women since it was easier to change and wash cotton bodices or blouses or skirts; especially if they worked in a dirty environment. Breeching of skirts by women in certain trades such as mining, cleaning/gutting fish, beach combing etc was practical and sensible but regarded as shocking and debased by the 'genteel' sections of society. Even worse was that some of these women wore trousers underneath their skirts which were 'an affront to their femininity' The Bloomer costume, a knee length dress with trousers worn underneath, would have been ideal for these women, but Victorian prudery prevented its adoption. It is a sad comment on Victorian feminine ideals that even when engaged in the dirtiest and most strenuous of work women were denied any comfort or suitability of clothing. They had to wear tight laced whale boned corsets in cotton denim or jean no matter what work they did and this caused untold suffering. Working men's wear did not change that much. Trousers were still made of corduroy; or of moleskin (a cotton pile fabric with a weave based on that for satin); and jackets were still made of fustian. Cloth caps remained in vogue. Shirts continued to be made of heavy cotton or calico and were long enough to be tucked between the legs for those men who did not wear underpants. At the end of the 19th century the uncomfortable stiff starched white collar became popular with 'white collar workers' and the modern tie evolved from the neck kerchief still worn by large numbers of working men. It was the 20th century which would bring about such a revolution in work wear for both men and women. Further reading: Marly, Diana de. Working Dress - a history of occupational clothing. Batsford, 1986. ISBN 0 7134 5028 2 GG View the Utility wear collection to find out more > |
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